T

o-o items o-o are in brief format :
o-o T-antigens
o-o taxonomy
o-o trans-acting factors
o-o transcription
o-o transcription factors
o-o translation
o-o transposable elements
o-o transport
o-o tRNA
o-o tumorigenic viruses
o-o tumor suppressors


Companion site items
¤ T-antigens ^ Taxonomy ^ taxonomic concepts history ф T cells »» The modern synthesis ~ thermochemistry ~ thymine guanine adenine cytosine uracil bases ф thymus ¤ TP53 סּ transport ~ transcription items ~ transcription ~ transcription factors ~ transcription initiation ~ termination of transcription § transducer proteins ◊◊ transduction (signaling) »» Transduction »» Transformation »» transition »» Translocation ~ transposable elements ~ trans-splicing ribozymes and therapeutics ~ translation items ~ translation ~ translation elongation ~ translation initiation ~ translation initiation - cap dependent ~ translation termination »» transversion ~ tRNA ¤ tumor antigens ¤ tumor suppressors ¤ tumorigenic viruses סּ two-component systems

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T-antigens

T-antigens (tumor antigens) are proteins encoded by DNA tumor viruses that can sequester cellular proteins away from their normal functional locations within the cell. The cellular proteins sequestered by viral T antigens are predominantly tumor suppressor proteins, and the loss of their normal suppressor functions results in cellular transformation.

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taxonomy

Taxonomies aim to group organisms according to shared characteristics against the background of biological diversity.

The major subdivisions employed in general taxonomies are: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. The mnemonic "Dashing King Philip Came Over From Greater Spain" applies.

Phenetic system: groupings of organisms based on mutual similarity of phenotypic (physical and chemical) characteristics. Phenetic groupings may or may not correlate with evolutionary relationships.

Numerical Taxonomies are a common approach to phenetic taxonomy that employ a number of phenotypic characteristics to generate similarity coefficients that may be mapped in dendrograms. Groupings based on numerical taxonomy may or may not correlate with evolutionary relationships.

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trans-acting factors

Trans-acting factors are usually protein factors that bind to the cis-acting sequences to control gene expression.

When protein factors are free to diffuse within the cell they can act on target elements that may not be derived from the same genome segment. Protein factors capable of acting upon other intermolecular genome segments are called "trans-acting factors".

 Regulatory Proteins Sequences

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transposable elements

Transposable elements are relatively long DNA sequences that can act as mobile genetic elements in prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes.

Transposition may result in splicing of DNA fragments into or out of the genome. During replicative transposition, the transposon is first replicated giving a new copy that is transferred to a new site, while the old copy is retained at the original site (type I transposition). Nonreplicative transposition, however, involves a transposon that is excised from a donor site and is relocated to a new site (type II transposition). Transposons normally influence the expression of the genes in proximity to their insertion sites.

Transposable elements comprise a large part of the genomes in many species. Transposons and retroposons seem to play a mechanism for biological evolution by promoting rearrangement and restructuring of genomes.

Alu elements ₪ Alu elements : biological evolution »» Biological Evolution : cDNA : deletions »» Deletion : eukaryotic vs prokaryotic : integrase : inversions »» Inversion : inverted repeats : LINEs : LTRs : long terminal repeats : mutations »» Mutation : non-replicative transposition : recombination »» Recombination : replicative transposition : retroposons : retrotransposons : retrovirus ۰۰ retroviruses : reverse transcriptase : RT : SINEs : stable mutations : translocations »» Translocation : transposable elements ~ transposable elements : transposition types I & II : transposase : transposons : viral retroposons :

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transcription factors

Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA at specific promoter or enhancer or response element sequences or sites, at which they regulate transcription. As such they are required for the recognition of specific stimulatory sequences in eukaryotic genes by RNA polymerases. Transcription factors can be selectively activated or deactivated by other proteins, often as the final step in signal transduction.

Three types of transcription factor are recognized:general transcription factors, upstream transcription factors, and inducible transcription factors.

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transcription

In transcription, an RNA polymerase enzyme (RNAp, or pol III in eukaryotes) directs generation of a complementary strand of mRNA from DNA.

The pre-mRNA produced by transcription is processed prior to participating in ribosomal translation into polypeptides and proteins.

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translation

Translation is the ultimate step in gene expression, in which archival genetic instructions that have been transcribed from DNA into RNA are converted into sequences of amino acids in peptides, polypeptides, and proteins at cytoplasmic ribosomes. Translation involves initiation, elongation, and termination steps.

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~ cap-dependent ~ cap-dependent translation initiation סּ eukaryotic ~ internal ribosomal entry ~ internal ribosomal entry site ~ IRES סּ prokaryotes ~ ribosomal shunt initiation pathway ~ ribosome shunting ~ ribozyme ~ translation : elongation : initiation : termination ~ translation elongation ~ translation initiation ~ translation termination ~ tRNAs .

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transport

Cells transport components into and out of cells across the plasma membrane, across membranes (nuclear, organellar) within cells, and as intracellular transport within the cytoplasm. Cellular transport is also referred to a translocation.

Active transport pumps require expenditure of energy, most often in the form of ATP, to transport hydrophilic macromolecules and ions across membranes against chemical or concentration gradients.

סּ active transport סּ cell membranes סּ chemotaxis סּ centrioles סּ chloroplast סּ chromosomes סּ cilia סּ concentration gradients סּ cytoplasm סּ cytoskeleton סּ ECM סּ endoplasmic reticulum סּ endosomes סּ exosome סּ extracellular matrix סּ Golgi apparatus סּ ion channels סּ lysosome סּ microtubules סּ migration סּ mitochondria, mitochondrion סּ motility סּ nuclear membrane סּ nuclear pore סּ nucleolus סּ nucleus סּ peroxisome סּ phagocytosis סּ physiological function סּ pinocytosis סּ protein degradation סּ proteasome סּ receptor-mediated endocytosis סּ spindle סּ structure סּ transport סּ vacuole סּ vesicle סּ

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tRNA

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are small (74-93) chains of nucleotides that transport code specified amino acids to growing peptide, polypeptide and protein chains at the ribosomes on cytoplasmic rough endoplasmic reticulum. Thus, tRNAs participate in translation of the genetic code.[]im[]

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tumorigenic viruses

Viral carcinogenesis (malignant transformation) is an accidental, cancer causing side effect of viral replication strategies.

Viruses are typically not complete carcinogens, with the known human cancer viruses displaying different roles in transformation. Tumorigenic viruses are subdivided according to the nucleic acid of their genome. Transforming retroviruses carry oncogenes originally derived from cellular genes that are involved in mitogenic signaling and growth regulation. DNA tumor viruses encode viral oncogenes that are essential for viral replication and cell transformation; viral oncoproteins complex with cellular proteins to stimulate cell-cycle progression.

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tumor suppressors

Tumor suppressor genes encode proteins that reduce the risk that a eukaryotic cell line will become tumorigenic (cancerous). Tumor suppressor proteins act as cell-cycle repressors and/or promoters of apoptosis.

When tumor suppressor proteins are sequestered away from their normal functional locations within the cell by retroviral tumor antigens, the loss of their normal suppressor functions results in cellular transformation. Because a single normal allele will express the wild-type suppressor protein, most tumor suppressor genes are recessive, meaning that both alleles must be defective for the cell to be susceptible to tumor development.

: APC : CBFA2T3 : Hsp90 : MDM2 : p53: PTEN : TP53 : Wnt :

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